Gland: Liver

LIVER

The liver has at least 500 separate functions. If we looked at the classification of these functions we could narrow them down to 2 classifications. The first classification would be one of food processing. The liver is responsible for changing inorganic food to organic food, via the process of denitrification, in which thyroxin is necessary. Lipid metabolism of cholesterol, triglycerides and phospholipids occurs mainly in the liver. Such is the case with carbohydrate, as well as lipoprotein metabolism.

1. CLASSIFICATION ONE-FOOD PROCESSING

For example, when it comes to carbohydrate metabolism the liver does the following:
• Causes gluconeogenesis from fats and proteins
• Acts as a storage center for glycogen and balances blood sugar by the method called “glucose buffer function.”

As far as fat metabolism is concerned, the liver does the following:
• Forms lipoproteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol, of which 80% is used to make bile salts. Both phospholipids and cholesterol are used to make cell membranes, hormones, and intracellular structures. The liver also converts carbohydrates and proteins into fats. The liver also oxidizes fatty acids quickly. Fat is quickly turned into glycerol and three fatty acids, and then through beta-oxidation, becomes acetyl coenzyme A, via the Kreb cycle. It is then sent to other cells in the form of acetoacetic acid, which cells convert back to acetyl coenzyme A.

As far as protein metabolism is concerned:
• The liver forms all major plasma proteins except for gamma globulins. The liver also forms fibrinogen, prothrombin and accelerator globulin.

As far as vitamins and minerals are concerned:
• The liver also stores vitamin A, D, and B12
• The liver also stores iron as ferritin, by using apoferritin to attach to the iron forming ferritin. When there is a decrease of iron in the blood, ferritin releases the iron from the liver.

According to Dr. Brockman, iodine is responsible for catabolism, which is a release of the foods from the liver sinusoids. Vanadium is responsible for anabolism, by storing foods in the liver sinusoids.

2. CLASSIFICATION TWO-IMMUNITY AND TOXIC REMOVAL-The endo-reticular portion, which is the most distal area, is responsible for blood filtration of all poisons, toxins, bacteria, virus, parasites, environmental pollutants, pesticides, industrial chemicals, food additives, metabolic wastes, excessive hormones, medications, and any and all filth that one can put into their body. At the present time, there are thought to be 200,000 foreign chemicals in the environment. The liver, through its various enzyme pathways, is responsible for neutralization of the various poisons.
The first system is the cytochrome P450 group of enzymes known to contain 500 different enzymes. This group of enzymes is also known as the “Phase 1” system. Phase 1 enzymes chemically oxidize substances into more toxic compounds. It is interesting to note that these intermediates can be very reactive and carcinogenic. The substrates that make up the cytochrome P450 group are thought to originate from steroids, sterols, and fatty acids.
The second system, known as the Phase 2 system, converts these substances into nontoxic and readily excreted substances. So, the cytochrome P450 group oxidizes a substance with oxygen, and the Phase 2 system often uses the oxygen site for further metabolism. The phase 2 conjugation pathway system is the addition of an endogenous substance, such as a carbohydrate derivative (glucuronic acid), or amino acids glycine and glutathione, or sulfate, to a foreign compound.
This conjugated compound is now less polar and less lipid soluble, thus facilitating excretion and reducing the likelihood of toxicity. There are three conjugation systems: glycine, sulfate, and glucuronides conjugation. The liver must identify food from toxins. It must program and reconstruct those substances that the thyroid has prepared.
Through the use of copper and iron (cytochromes), the liver tags the microbe or toxin. The iron is used to fight infection and for transportation for beneficial hosting. An example of this would be monocytes attacking a virus and engulfing it and transporting it away from the liver.
Copper is used to neutralize toxins. Once a substance leaves the liver, whether it is food, microbe, or chemical poison, the process of oxidation starts. Iron or copper, prior to its proper destination, must not oxidize the substance. Antioxidants, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, surround the substance so that you can have sufficient time for oxidation and proper combustion of the surrounded substance at the proper time.
Premature oxidation is what allows toxins, microbes, food and metabolic wastes to be released into the system before it reaches its destination.

ALT (SGPT)

SERUM GLUTAMIC PYRUVIC TRANSAMINASE (SGPT) (ALT)

SGPT is primarily a liver function test. It has a maximum concentration in the liver (fatty membranes) sinusoids. Low concentrations of SGPT are also found in the kidneys, heart, and skeletal muscle.
In pathological states, elevations indicate liver disease.
ALT is found in serum and in various bodily tissues but is most commonly associated with the liver. It catalyzes the transfer of an amino group from alanine to alpha-ketoglutarate, and the products of this reversible transamination reaction being pyruvate and glutamate.
glutamate + pyruvate ⇌ alpha-ketoglutarate + alanine
Alanine transaminase delivers skeletal muscle carbon and nitrogen in the form of alanine to the liver.
In skeletal muscle, pyruvate is transaminated to alanine, thus affording an additional route of nitrogen transport from muscle to liver. In the liver, alanine transaminase transfers the ammonia to A-KG and regenerates pyruvate. The pyruvate can then be diverted into gluconeogenesis. This process is referred to as the glucose-alanine cycle. The glucose-alanine cycle is used primarily as a mechanism for skeletal muscle to eliminate nitrogen as the muscles replenish their energy supply. Within the liver, alanine is converted back to pyruvate and is then a source of carbon atoms for gluconeogenesis. The newly formed glucose can then enter the bloodstream for delivery back to the muscle. The amino group transported from the muscle to the liver, in the form of alanine, is converted to urea in the urea cycle and then excreted.
In physiological states SGPT is a primary kreb cycle expressant and as a result causes the release of catabolic fats. SGPT occurs in serum as a consequence of substances being released by the fatty membranes of the liver sinusoids, and lymphatic ducts. The liver sinusoids store food, and the lymphatic ducts house toxins.
Picture a layer of fat that holds foods or toxins in the cell. Now as that layer of fat is being burned off, foods and toxins are being released in a controlled manner. This allows foods or toxins to be directed to their next destination.
Please note that most lab ranges for this test start at 0, which in actuality is false since this is a measurement of liver function, and 0 would mean that the liver was not functioning at all. A low range then should be around 15.
Therefore, from a physiological perspective, a low SGPT between 15-20 would indicate a sluggish liver causing many metabolic disturbances.
Typically these people have no energy, get sick a lot, cannot tolerate food well and have a slow metabolism.

GGT

GAMMA GLUTAMYL TRANSPEPTIDASE (GGT)

Is a biliary enzyme useful in the diagnosis of obstructive jaundice, intrahepatic cholestasis and pancreatitis. GGT is more responsive to biliary obstruction than are aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (SGOT) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (SGPT). 1. GGT is increased in hepatoma and carcinoma of the pancreas and useful in the diagnosis of metastatic carcinoma of the liver. Increasing levels in carcinoma patients relate to tumor progression and a dubious outcome.
1. CEA, alkaline phosphatase and GGT together are useful markers for hepatic metastasis from the breast and colon.
2. May be useful in the diagnosis of chronic alcoholic liver disease. Follow-up blood chemistries of serum GGT, AST and ALT levels can distinguish recovering alcoholics who resume drinking from those who do not.
3. Increase in body mass correlates with increased GGT levels.
4. GGT along with MCV is a useful test for alcoholism.
5. GGT is the test of choice for pregnant females who may have cholestasis.
6. GGT levels are elevated in cirrhosis and hepatitis.
7. The transaminases, AST and ALT rise higher in acute viral hepatitis; then GGT.
8. Increased in systemic lupus erythematosus

GGT IS HIGH WHEN
General considerations:
If patient has been on a very low-fat diet for long periods of time then increase fat intake

Total Iron

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TBIC)—measures the amount of transferrin,
which is a blood protein that transports iron from the digestive system to cells that
will be utilizing the iron. Your body produces transferrin in relationship to the
body’s need for iron. When iron stores are low, transferrin levels will increase
and when transferrin levels are low, too much iron is present. Usually, about one
third of the transferrin is being used to transport iron at any one time. Because of
this, your blood serum has considerable extra iron-binding capacity, which is
called the Unsaturated Iron Biding Capacity (UIBC). The TIBC then equals
UIBC plus serum iron measurement. Some laboratories may measure UIBC,

some measure TIBC and others measure transferrin. TIBC is increased in iron-
deficiency, acute hepatitis, during pregnancy or when oral contraceptives are

used. TIBC is decreased in hypoproteinemia from many causes, cirrhosis of the
liver, nephrosis and thalassemia or from a number of inflammatory states.

TOTAL IRON
IRON
Men 65-175ug/dL 11.6-31.3 umol/L
Women 50-170ug/dL 9.0 -30.4 umol/L
Children 50-120ug/dL 9.0-21.5 umol/L
Newborns 100-250 ug/dL 17.9-44.8 umol/L

Fibrinogen

  1. FIBRINOGEN- BLOOD TEST RANGES 200 and 400 mg/dL (2.0 to 4.0 g/L)

(coagulation factor I) is a glycoprotein complex that is synthesized by the liver and circulates in the blood stream. During tissue and or vascular injury, it is converted enzymatically by thrombin to fibrin which creates a blood clot The primary function is to occlude blood vessels thus stopping bleeding.  Fibrin also binds and reduces the activity of thrombin. This activity referred to as antithrombin I, which limits clot formation. Fibrin also mediates and is important in blood platelet, endothelial cell spreading, capillary tube formation, tissue fibroblast proliferation, and angiogenesis thereby promoting revascularization and wound healing. Thrombin is synthesized in the liver and secreted into the general circulation in an inactive zymogen form (prothrombin), a complex multidomain glycoprotein that is activated to yield thrombin at sites of vascular injury by limited proteolysis following upstream activation of the coagulation cascade.

Apo B

Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the transport of fats and cholesterol in the blood. It is a key component of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and other lipoproteins that carry triglycerides, cholesterol, and cholesterol esters. Elevated ApoB levels are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Key aspects of ApoB:

  • Role in Lipoprotein Formation:

ApoB is a primary protein on the surface of various lipoproteins, including LDL, VLDL, chylomicrons, and lipoprotein(a).

  • Atherogenic Particle Indicator:

ApoB measurement helps determine the number of atherogenic particles circulating in the bloodstream, which are linked to plaque buildup in arteries.

  • Cardiovascular Risk: Elevated ApoB levels are a significant indicator of increased cardiovascular risk, particularly atherosclerosis.
  • ApoB Test: An ApoB test measures the amount of ApoB in the blood and is often used to assess the risk of heart disease.
  • Two Forms: ApoB exists in two forms: ApoB100 (primarily in the liver) and ApoB48 (primarily in the intestine).

Apo High levels of apolipoprotein B (ApoB) are often associated with elevated levels of LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) and can be caused by a variety of factors, including diet, lifestyle, underlying medical conditions, and genetics.