Gland: Hypothalamic/Hypophyseal Stalk

THE PITUITARY STALK (INFUNDIBULUM)
HYPOPHYSEAL STALK
MEDIAN EMINENCE, TUBEROINFUNDIBULAR AND TUBEROHYPOPHYSEAL NEURONS

The median eminence lies in the center of the tuber cinereum and is the site of an array of blood vessels, from the superior hypophyseal artery (which is a branch of the internal carotid) from which the pituitary portal vessels arise. This drains into the pituitary sinus and is the site where hypothalamic neurons from the ventral hypothalamus (tuber hypophyseal neurons) regulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary into the hypophyseal-portal system.
The pars tuberalis, which is a thin glandular tissue sheath around the infundibulum that can secrete LH and TSH, makes up part of the median eminence and is a subdivision of the adenohypophysis. This surrounds the infundibular stalk and together they make up the hypophyseal stalk. The median eminence is considered to be the functional link between the hypothalamus and the pituitary.

There are three zones that make up the median eminence and they are:

1. EPENDYMAL LAYER-which is made from ependymal cells that form the floor of the third ventricle. This ependymal layer contains tanycytes, which act as the blood brain barrier between itself and the third ventricle (CSF and blood.)

2. INTERNAL ZONE-which is composed of axons from the supraoptic and
paraventricular magnocellular neurons heading to the posterior pituitary.

3. EXTERNAL ZONE-is the exchange point of the hypothalamic releasing factors.
There are two types of tuber hypophyseal neurons that project into this zone.

a. Peptides neurons which release thyrotrophin releasing hormone, corticotrophin releasing hormone, luteinizing hormone releasing hormone and somatostatin
b. Monoamines and bio-amines such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, which come in contact with the pituitary portal veins.

These tuber hypophyseal neurons synthesize the neurotransmitters in the following way:
1. There is an uptake of amino acids into aminergic neurons such as tyrosine that are the precursor for dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.
2. Enzymatic synthesis, whereby tyrosine is hydroxylated by tyrosine hydroxylase to form L-dopa, which is decarboxylated to form dopamine, which is hydroxylated to form norepinephrine which is methylated to form epinephrine.
3. Storage phase
4. Released of preformed granules in response to neural depolarization, whereby granules are extruded thru the nerve endings.
5. Interaction with the catecholamines with receptors located on the postsynaptic neuron.
6. Reuptake process after the release of the preformed hormones and neurotransmitters, any unused hormones/neurotransmitters that are still left in the synaptic cleft, are taken up into the presynaptic neuron.
7. Degradation of neurotransmitters, dopamine, and norepinephrine, which are bound to postsynaptic membranes are freed into presynaptic membranes, which are then destroyed by monoamine oxidase.
8. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (parglycine, isocarboxazid) then make up more neurotransmitters and hormones.

There are distinct pathways within the median eminence and they include:

DOPAMINERGIC PATHWAYS-most of the cells that synthesize dopamine arise from the midbrain, project to the forebrain and the basal ganglia (causing Parkinson’s), and to the cerebral cortex, causing schizophrenia. They also project to the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus and to the median eminence.

NORADRENERGIC PATHWAYS-originate from the midbrain, locus ceruleus, and project to the forebrain (cerebral cortex), the limbic system, hypothalamus, brain stem, and spinal cord. They play a role in visceral homeostasis, regulating sleep, appetite, emotional happiness and physical activity. This is the site of action for amphetamines and antidepressant drugs.

CENTRAL ADRENERGIC PATHWAYS-are the least plentiful and are the cell bodies that originate in the midbrain. They are extensive in the hypothalamus and the median eminence.

CENTRAL SEROTONINERGIC PATHWAYS-all originate from the raphae nucleus in, which fibers ascend to innervate the forebrain and the diencephalons. These fibers also terminate in the hypothalamus (paraventricular nucleus, median eminence and the lumen of the 3rd ventricle). Fibers also project downward into the brain stem and the spinal cord.

CENTRAL CHOLINERGIC PATHWAYS-(muscarine and nicotinic receptors) are found in the brain and hypothalamus, with some fibers originating from the nucleus basalis of the forebrain to the hippocampus. Loss of these neurons causes Alzheimer’s. These pathways control AVP, ACTH, and GH secretion.

AMINO ACID TRANSMITTERS-glutamine, aspartate, glycine and inhibitory GABA is found in hypothalamic neurons and can modify tuber hypophyseal function.

The medial eminence then can be said to consist of three components:
• Neural
• Vascular blood supply from the hypophyseal artery, which is a branch of the internal carotid and drains via the portal veins, which drain into the pituitary sinus.
• Epithelial-The nerve endings, basement membranes, interstitial space and the capillary wall of the median eminence release all the neuropeptides and can be stimulated by increasing potassium in the presence of calcium. This also increases anterior pituitary secretions. The extra and per vascular spaces of the median eminence are where billions of neurons are bathed in interstitial fluid in a multitude of hormones and neurotransmitters. The supraoptic and paraventricular hypophyseal tracts pass thru the eminence and some tracts end here as well.

The purpose of the pituitary infundibulum is to make sure all chemical and neurological information from the hypothalamus, and through many neurological pathways with the brain, can communicate and control the pituitary gland properly. The nervous and endocrine systems communicate thru pulsations (circulatory disturbances of blood and CSF) and vibrations (neurological transmissions.) If the pituitary infundibulum has adhesions (via the diaphragm sellae) can lead to improper communication with the pituitary.
The pituitary infundibulum is derived from the posterior wall of Rathke pouch.
The intermediate lobe produces melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which increases skin pigmentation by stimulating melanin granules in melanocytes. MSH is synthesized by pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) a precursor of ACTH. Beta-lipotropin and beta-endorphin also produce melatonin and serotonin that create a phenomenon similar to photosynthesis in plants, called biosynthesis in humans. During biosynthesis, you also have a light and dark reaction, which is controlled by melatonin and serotonin.

Melatonin controls response of tissue to light and darkness, and the more melatonin in the skin, the more the skin coloration changes when exposed to light. High-density fats such as cholesterol always cause browning of the skin. Low-density fats such as triglycerides always cause lightening of the skin.

Serotonin, on the other hand, controls the waking and sleeping reactions within our bodies. Sleeping relates to darkness or nighttime, and waking relates to daylight or daytime. During the light reaction, we have our waking hours and fatty acid combustion (which is the breakdown of triglycerides to yield energy for body metabolism.) This relates to the catabolic phase of metabolism. The dark reaction, which is during the sleep hours, is the anabolic phase, utilizing cholesterol for growth and repair.

The following blood chemistries assess the function of the pituitary infundibulum:

1. CHOLESTEROL:

2. TRIGLYCERIDES:
Any imbalance in either cholesterol or triglycerides can be affected by the pituitary infundibulum, as mentioned above.

Sodium

ELECTROLYTES

The blood electrolytes include sodium, potassium, chloride, and the bicarbonate (HCO3) ion.
Sodium, potassium, and chloride enter the body via ingestion of food.
Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, originates within the body via the metabolic process of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Normally the excretion of sodium, potassium, and water is equal to their intake. The kidneys secrete 80-90 percent of all electrolytes.
Excessive carbon dioxide stimulates the respiratory centers in the brainstem to increase respiration. Therefore, the kidneys and the lungs control sodium, chloride, potassium, water, and carbon dioxide thus exerting control over the acid/alkaline balance in the body.
There are also many other organs, and glands involved in this process, such as the posterior pituitary, adrenals, bowel, and uterus/prostate.
The purpose of electrolytes is to set up a shifting mechanism in the cell membrane via oxidation, allowing increased or decreased permeability to that membrane site.
Sodium, which is found in high concentration outside the cell, has the ability to gather up substances (foods) and bring them to active membrane sites.
Chloride is found in the cell membrane and acts as a “doorman” allowing or disallowing exchanges between the intracellular and extracellular fluids.
Potassium, which is found in high concentrations within cells, oxidizes chloride, and allows sodium, with the food to cross the cell membrane and enter the cell.
Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and hydrogen are all transported via active transport.
SODIUM

Sodium is the most abundant cation (90%) and is the major base in the body. Sodium is either implanted into the food via saliva or is found in the food and has the following functions:

1. Sodium is an alkaline mineral that helps maintain alkaline activity.
Therefore, it helps in acid-alkaline balance, which affect intracellular/extracellular fluid exchange, osmotic pressure, via the sodium/potassium pump and does this in conjunction with antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone.

2. Sodium gathers, and aggregates (polarizes) all substances necessary to be exchanged by semi-permeable membranes. Sodium pumps proteins and sugars into the cell membranes.

3. Sodium also affects the renal tubules for the activity of discharging toxins. It literally aggregates toxins and holds them in suspension.

4. Sodium is controlled by the adrenal cortex and as mentioned above is extremely alkaline and therefore, can cause migration of substances towards its polarity, as well as causing these migrated substances to achieve permeability in an acid antioxidant type media known as a fatty membrane. Sodium is the substance necessary to polarize foods into storage according to that permeable membranes needs.

5. Sodium is also necessary for the transmission of neurological impulses by creating action potentials across neurological membranes.

6. Sodium concentration in and out of cells remains constant due to renal blood flow, carbonic anhydrase enzyme activity, aldosterone, and other steroids controlled by the anterior pituitary, rennin enzyme secretion, hypothalamus, and posterior pituitary control of ADH and vasopressin secretion

Carbon Dioxide

CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide is created as a byproduct when potassium forces water into fat.
So carbon dioxide is the acid gas factor, which binds fats and selenium creating the intelligent metabolic activity between the water and fat.

80-90 percent of the carbon dioxide found in plasma is bound to protein and is represented as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) which first exists in the extracellular spaces as CO2 then as H2CO3 and finally is buffered by the plasma and erythrocytes into sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3) and is regulated by the kidneys. The other 10 to 20 percent is dissolved CO2 gas (removed by the lungs), which is bound to protein as CO3 (2), and carbonic acid (H2CO3). The total CO2 comes from dissolved CO2, H2CO3, HCO3-
and carbaminohemoglobin (CO2HHb).

This occurs in the following way, carbon dioxide in the blood reacts with water in the red blood cells to form carbonic acid. In the blood cells, there is an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase that catalyzes the water and carbon dioxide 5,000 fold, creating a rapid exchange into carbonic acid. This allows tremendous amounts of carbon dioxide reacting with the water in the red blood cells, even before the blood leaves the tissue capillaries.

So a red blood cell creates carbonic acid from water and carbon dioxide. In another small fraction of a second, the carbonic acid formed in the red blood cell now disassociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions combine with hemoglobin, as the bicarbonate ions diffuse out into the plasma while chloride ions diffuse into the red blood cells taking the place of the bicarbonate ions. This is made possible by the presence of a bicarbonate/chloride carrier protein in the red blood cell membrane, which acts as a shuttle for these two ions. Thus, the chloride content of venous red blood cells is greater than that of arterial cells. This is known as the chloride shift.
In addition, carbon dioxide can react directly with hemoglobin to form the compound carbaminohemoglobin. This carbaminohemoglobin creates the reversible reaction releasing carbon dioxide into the alveoli of the lungs.
Carbon dioxide then is the venous capillary exchange product after diffusion takes place. The active pressure intake of oxygen relies upon this diffusion. This active process realizes the ability of forced metabolism and is the ash byproduct.
Carbon dioxide is vital to pH balance and is controlled by the respiratory, renal, and posterior pituitary adrenal axis.
Therefore, any of these glands or organs or combinations thereof can affect carbon dioxide levels.
CARBON DIOXIDE IS HIGH WHEN
General considerations:
¬ Water loss- increase water intake
¬ Protein loss- increase protein intake
¬ Hypomagnesemia or hypokalemia causes increased CO2- increase potassium and magnesium

CARBON DIOXIDE IS LOW WHEN

¬ Water loss- increase water intake
¬ Hypermagnesemia or hyperkalemia causes decreased CO2- decrease potassium and magnesium support

Cholesterol, Total

SERUM LIPIDS
Serum lipids serve as a primary source of energy along with glucose.
The functions are many, such as the production of cell membranes, precursors to hormones, and bile acids.
Lipids are first broken down in the duodenum, along with bile, which emulsifies the fats, and prepares them for absorption into the lymphatic system.
Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes cholesterol, and triglycerides into fatty acids, and glycerol. The fatty acids and glycerol are then reconverted back into triglycerides by the intestinal cells and then discharged into the lymphatic or portal blood system, which is then sent to the liver.
Cholesterol is also absorbed in both the free and esterified forms into the lymphatics.
Cholesterol is also synthesized in the reticular cells and histiocytes throughout the body but mainly formed in the liver. Under the influence of iodine via the thyroid, carbohydrates, amino acids, and other fats are converted to cholesterol via multiple molecules of acetyl coenzyme A creating a sterol nucleus. Triglycerides are also assembled in the liver from glycerol and fatty acids. The liver is the main organ regulating blood lipids. So the liver can degrade fatty acids for energy, synthesize triglycerides from carbohydrates and proteins. The liver can then hydrolyzes the triglycerides back into three fatty acids, and glycerol then degrades the fatty acids into acetyl coenzyme A via beta-oxidation.
Then acetyl coenzyme A is then oxidized to release ATP.
The liver also synthesizes phospholipids, lecithin, cephalins (that produce thromboplastin), and sphingomyelin (produces the myelin sheath) are formed in the liver and transported via lipoproteins.
An increase in triglycerides or choline/inositol increases phospholipid production. Phospholipids are also important in the production of cell membranes.

CHOLESTEROL

Cholesterol is a byproduct of protein metabolism. Bonding oily fat (fat-soluble vitamins) to nitrogen via oxidation forms cholesterol.
This process utilizes vitamins, D, E, K, A, and T.
These are your fat-soluble vitamins that are bound to the nitrogen portion of foods.
The basic purpose of fat-soluble vitamins is to lubricate membranes. The vitamin (oil) prevents oxygen from reaching the membrane, which may inhibit its function. Fat-soluble vitamins also provide the substance necessary to make hormones, enzymes, and antibodies.
For example,
Vitamin D. lubricates all gross membranes that are exposed to air, such as your skin, respiratory passages, and the digestive membranes. This is your antioxidant lubricator

Vitamin A. lubricates secondary membranes that are exposed to the blood, such as the liver, kidney, lungs and spleen. Vitamin A. is called your hydrogen lubricator.

Vitamin K. lubricates cell membranes that are exposed to water.

Vitamin F. fatty acids are used to make enzymes.

Vitamin E. is used to make hormones.

Vitamin T. which, is sesame seed oil, is used to make antibodies

Lecithin prevents oil and fat from going rancid.

So the purpose of fat-soluble vitamins is to oxidize and combust with protein to form cholesterol, which then transposes it into a lubricator, a hormone, antibody, or enzyme.
Low-density lipoproteins are rich in cholesterol and carry some triglycerides and are used to produce sex hormones.
High-density lipoproteins are rich in triglycerides and carry some fat.
Please note that at any one time, the body can dictate the percentage of low-density lipoproteins vs. high-density lipoproteins.
It's obvious that an imbalance can create multiple diseases in the body.
Please note that these lipoproteins also engulf toxins and then are stored in tissue cells. At a later time, the body gradually detoxifies these deposits unless the amount is overwhelming.
Similar to glucose, cholesterol is affected by many organs and glands and in itself is not a reliable indicator as to what is going on in the body.
Over the years, the labs went from a normal cholesterol reading of 300, down to 250, then down to 200, and now down to 150. If they continue this nonsense they will create a whole new list of diseases. I recommend that your cholesterol levels be between 175-275mg/dL.

Triglycerides

SERUM LIPIDS

Serum lipids serve as a primary source of energy along with glucose.
The functions are many, such as the production of cell membranes, precursors to hormones, and bile acids.
Lipids are first broken down in the duodenum, along with bile, which emulsifies the fats, and prepares them for absorption into the lymphatic system.
Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes cholesterol, and triglycerides into fatty acids, and glycerol. The fatty acids and glycerol are then reconverted back into triglycerides by the intestinal cells and then discharged into the lymphatic or portal blood system, which is then sent to the liver.
Cholesterol is also absorbed in both the free and esterified forms into the lymphatics.
Cholesterol is also synthesized in the reticular cells and histiocytes throughout the body but mainly formed in the liver. Under the influence of iodine via the thyroid, carbohydrates, amino acids, and other fats are converted to cholesterol via multiple molecules of acetyl coenzyme A creating a sterol nucleus. Triglycerides are also assembled in the liver from glycerol and fatty acids. The liver is the main organ regulating blood lipids. So the liver can degrade fatty acids for energy, synthesize triglycerides from carbohydrates and proteins. The liver can then hydrolyzes the triglycerides back into three fatty acids, and glycerol then degrades the fatty acids into acetyl coenzyme A via beta-oxidation.
Then acetyl coenzyme A is then oxidized to release ATP.
The liver also synthesizes phospholipids, lecithin, cephalins (that produce thromboplastin), and sphingomyelin (produces the myelin sheath) are formed in the liver and transported via lipoproteins.
An increase in triglycerides or choline/inositol increases phospholipid production. Phospholipids are also important in the production of cell membranes.

 

TRIGLYCERIDES

Triglycerides compromise 95% of fat stored in adipose tissue and stored as glycerol, fatty acids, and monoglycerides. The liver reconvert's these back to triglycerides. 80% of your triglycerides make up VLDL, and 15% form LDL’S.
From a pathological viewpoint, this test evaluates atherosclerosis and measures the bodies ability to utilize fat.
From the physiologic perspective, triglycerides are nothing more than three fatty acids, and esters of glycerol.
Fatty acids are composed of sugar and alcohol.
Triglycerides travel with cholesterol (LDL/HDL) to combust cholesterol at the appropriate time.Triglycerides are needed for calculation of LDLC (low-density lipoprotein cholesterol) concentration.
Triglycerides are the matches or “the spark” that ignites and combusts the cholesterol. Triglycerides are implanted in the cell membrane of all neurological and glandular tissue. Triglycerides create the energy for a neurological impulse to occur.
When the neurological impulse occurs triglycerides actually “explode” causing the active exchange of electrolytes.
Primary glands involved in triglyceride metabolism are the posterior pituitary, the hypophyseal stalk, adrenals, and the head of the pancreas.Therefore, any condition affecting these organs can affect triglyceride levels. High levels are a greater risk for a heart attack then a high cholesterol. Low triglyceride levels from the physiologic perspective cause low energy.

Triglycerides Normally Range From 0-199. It Is Rather Obvious That 0 Triglycerides Could Not Be Achieved Physiologically. My Ranges Are From 75-200 mg/dL

T3 Uptake

T-4, T-3, T3 uptake and TSH
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary, stimulates the production of thyroxin, and triiodothyronine, therefore, having a dramatic effect on the T4/T3 test results.
Thyrotrophs makeup 5% of the anterior pituitary and produce between 100-400mU/day of TSH.
Circadian peaks with the onset of sleep are between 9 pm-5am and a minimum between 4-7pm.
TSH is regulated by an open feedback loop via thyroxin whereby thyroxin passes into the CSF of the lateral ventricles and is taken up by the epithelial cells of the choroid plexus, which when thyroxin levels are low, stimulates TRH-secreting neurons in the hypothalamus.
TSH does the following:
1. Stimulates phospholipid metabolism
2. Stimulates purine and pyrimidine precursors and their incorporation into nucleic acids.

T-4 and 3 indicate the denitrification power of iodine via thyroxin with T3 being much more powerful than T4. All food contains active biological nutrients that are bound with nitrogen. When this food reaches the liver, the iodine is used to cleave the nitrogen from the nutrient.
Therefore, thyroxin and T3 are important in fat and protein digestion, absorption, and growth and endocrine function.
This catabolic activity begins once aerobic bound substances become totally anaerobic and lose the need for nitrogen bonding. Nitrogen is cleaved by T3 or T4 in the liver for example as in glycogen storage. Other substances are needed by specific cells and are transported via total binding globulin to the cells where at that point, the nitrogen bonds are cleaved.
Less than 1% of T3 is unbound. A high T-3 uptake indicates a hypothyroid, where a low T-3 uptake indicates a hyperthyroid.