Gland: Cardio / Urinary / Resp

LPA

  1. LPA- BLOOD TEST LEVELS 30-50 mg/dL (75-125 nmol/L

Lipoprotein (a) or Lp(a) levels are measured in milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) or nanomoles per liter (nmol/L). A lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)) blood test measures the amount of Lp(a) in your blood, which is lipoprotein that carries cholesterol. Thus elevated Lp(a) levels are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Recommended for individuals with a family history of heart disease or other risk factors. High levels of lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a), may cause heart attack, stroke, and or aortic stenosis

LPA is produced through multiple mechanisms within cells and in biological fluids like plasma and serum. Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is primarily produced by the enzyme autotaxin (ATX). ATX, which is a secreted lysophospholipase D, converts lysophospholipids, primarily lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), into LPA. This extracellular production pathway is considered the major source of bioactive LPA.

Fibrinogen

  1. FIBRINOGEN- BLOOD TEST RANGES 200 and 400 mg/dL (2.0 to 4.0 g/L)

(coagulation factor I) is a glycoprotein complex that is synthesized by the liver and circulates in the blood stream. During tissue and or vascular injury, it is converted enzymatically by thrombin to fibrin which creates a blood clot The primary function is to occlude blood vessels thus stopping bleeding.  Fibrin also binds and reduces the activity of thrombin. This activity referred to as antithrombin I, which limits clot formation. Fibrin also mediates and is important in blood platelet, endothelial cell spreading, capillary tube formation, tissue fibroblast proliferation, and angiogenesis thereby promoting revascularization and wound healing. Thrombin is synthesized in the liver and secreted into the general circulation in an inactive zymogen form (prothrombin), a complex multidomain glycoprotein that is activated to yield thrombin at sites of vascular injury by limited proteolysis following upstream activation of the coagulation cascade.

Sodium

ELECTROLYTES

The blood electrolytes include sodium, potassium, chloride, and the bicarbonate (HCO3) ion.
Sodium, potassium, and chloride enter the body via ingestion of food.
Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, originates within the body via the metabolic process of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Normally the excretion of sodium, potassium, and water is equal to their intake. The kidneys secrete 80-90 percent of all electrolytes.
Excessive carbon dioxide stimulates the respiratory centers in the brainstem to increase respiration. Therefore, the kidneys and the lungs control sodium, chloride, potassium, water, and carbon dioxide thus exerting control over the acid/alkaline balance in the body.
There are also many other organs, and glands involved in this process, such as the posterior pituitary, adrenals, bowel, and uterus/prostate.
The purpose of electrolytes is to set up a shifting mechanism in the cell membrane via oxidation, allowing increased or decreased permeability to that membrane site.
Sodium, which is found in high concentration outside the cell, has the ability to gather up substances (foods) and bring them to active membrane sites.
Chloride is found in the cell membrane and acts as a “doorman” allowing or disallowing exchanges between the intracellular and extracellular fluids.
Potassium, which is found in high concentrations within cells, oxidizes chloride, and allows sodium, with the food to cross the cell membrane and enter the cell.
Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and hydrogen are all transported via active transport.
SODIUM

Sodium is the most abundant cation (90%) and is the major base in the body. Sodium is either implanted into the food via saliva or is found in the food and has the following functions:

1. Sodium is an alkaline mineral that helps maintain alkaline activity.
Therefore, it helps in acid-alkaline balance, which affect intracellular/extracellular fluid exchange, osmotic pressure, via the sodium/potassium pump and does this in conjunction with antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone.

2. Sodium gathers, and aggregates (polarizes) all substances necessary to be exchanged by semi-permeable membranes. Sodium pumps proteins and sugars into the cell membranes.

3. Sodium also affects the renal tubules for the activity of discharging toxins. It literally aggregates toxins and holds them in suspension.

4. Sodium is controlled by the adrenal cortex and as mentioned above is extremely alkaline and therefore, can cause migration of substances towards its polarity, as well as causing these migrated substances to achieve permeability in an acid antioxidant type media known as a fatty membrane. Sodium is the substance necessary to polarize foods into storage according to that permeable membranes needs.

5. Sodium is also necessary for the transmission of neurological impulses by creating action potentials across neurological membranes.

6. Sodium concentration in and out of cells remains constant due to renal blood flow, carbonic anhydrase enzyme activity, aldosterone, and other steroids controlled by the anterior pituitary, rennin enzyme secretion, hypothalamus, and posterior pituitary control of ADH and vasopressin secretion

Potassium

ELECTROLYTES

The blood electrolytes include sodium, potassium, chloride, and the bicarbonate (HCO3) ion.
Sodium, potassium, and chloride enter the body via ingestion of food.
Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, originates within the body via the metabolic process of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Normally the excretion of sodium, potassium, and water is equal to their intake. The kidneys secrete 80-90 percent of all electrolytes.
Excessive carbon dioxide stimulates the respiratory centers in the brainstem to increase respiration. Therefore, the kidneys and the lungs control sodium, chloride, potassium, water, and carbon dioxide thus exerting control over the acid/alkaline balance in the body.
There are also many other organs, and glands involved in this process, such as the posterior pituitary, adrenals, bowel, and uterus/prostate.
The purpose of electrolytes is to set up a shifting mechanism in the cell membrane via oxidation, allowing increased or decreased permeability to that membrane site.
Sodium, which is found in high concentration outside the cell, has the ability to gather up substances (foods), and bring them to active membrane sites.
Chloride is found in the cell membrane and acts as a “doorman” allowing or disallowing exchanges between the intracellular and extracellular fluids.
Potassium, which is found in high concentrations within cells, oxidizes chloride, and allows sodium, with the food to cross the cell membrane and enter the cell.
Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and hydrogen are all transported via active transport.
POTASSIUM

Potassium is intracellular, lining the inside of all cell membranes and affecting intracellular fluids, osmotic pressure, buffering viscosity (potassium bicarbonate is the primary intracellular inorganic buffer). When there is a decrease in potassium bicarbonate you have acid cells, which excites the respiratory centers so the patient hyperventilates. Metabolic acidosis or diabetic ketoacidosis drives potassium out of the cells, affecting electrolyte balance, water retention and carbon dioxide transport in red blood cells. Potassium is responsible via the posterior pituitary for oxidizing secondary hydrogen chloride (affecting adrenal function), allowing the sodium-aggregated substances to cross the cell membrane by affecting the membranes permeability.
Potassium is the only substance, which allows oxygen into unoxygenated tissue. About 90% of the body’s potassium supply is intracellular with only a small percent in the serum.
80% of that is found in the muscles (used for muscular contraction) and in the bones. Potassium levels are regulated by the Na/K ATPase pump which requires magnesium for proper function.
Potassium is necessary for proper function of mineralocorticoids, (aldosterone and deoxycorticosterone) thus maintaining sodium concentration and alkaline reserve.
Therefore, potassium is of great value to the posterior pituitary (ADH/oxytocin), the pineal, and the adrenal cortex via aldosterone secretion.
Potassium along with sodium regulate renal acid-base balance, by substituting hydrogen ions for sodium and potassium in the renal tubules.
Potassium also facilitates oxygen to the myocardium and oxidizes the S.A. node of the heart.
The heart has the highest potassium concentration in the body. Potassium along with calcium and magnesium controls the rate and force of contraction in heart muscle.
It is the primary oxidizer of the body capable of expressing all cellular needs.
Potassium also regulates neurological impulses via osmotic pressure gradients throughout the nervous system.
Potassium directs carbohydrate digestion by polarizing minerals associated with carbohydrate digestion, from the time the carbohydrate enters the body until the cell utilizes it.
Potassium also makes proteins soluble and regulates protein synthesis.
80-90 percent of potassium in the cells is excreted by the kidneys (resulting in the loss of 40-50 mEq/L per day even during fasting) with the remainder excreted by the stool and through sweating

POTASSIUM IS LOW WHEN
General considerations:

¬ Increase water intake
¬ Increase magnesium intake
¬ Decrease calcium intake
¬ Increase potassium intake
¬ Decrease carbohydrate intake

Chloride

ELECTROLYTES

The blood electrolytes include sodium, potassium, chloride, and the bicarbonate (HCO3) ion.
Sodium, potassium, and chloride enter the body via ingestion of food.
Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, originates within the body via the metabolic process of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Normally the excretion of sodium, potassium, and water is equal to their intake. The kidneys secrete 80-90 percent of all electrolytes.
Excessive carbon dioxide stimulates the respiratory centers in the brainstem to increase respiration. Therefore, the kidneys and the lungs control sodium, chloride, potassium, water, and carbon dioxide thus exerting control over the acid/alkaline balance in the body.
There are also many other organs, and glands involved in this process, such as the posterior pituitary, adrenals, bowel, and uterus/prostate.
The purpose of electrolytes is to set up a shifting mechanism in the cell membrane via oxidation, allowing increased or decreased permeability to that membrane site.
Sodium, which is found in high concentration outside the cell, has the ability to gather up substances (foods) and bring them to active membrane sites.
Chloride is found in the cell membrane and acts as a “doorman” allowing or disallowing exchanges between the intracellular and extracellular fluids.
Potassium, which is found in high concentrations within cells, oxidizes chloride, and allows sodium, with the food to cross the cell membrane and enter the cell.
Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and hydrogen are all transported via active transport.
CHLORIDE

Chloride a blood electrolyte, and is the major anion and exists in the extracellular spaces as part of the sodium chloride or HCl molecules.
Chloride is used for assessing pH, and electrolyte balance.
From a physiologic perspective, the primary purpose of chloride is to regulate the quantity of carbohydrates and proteins entering into the cells, by inhibiting the exchange of mineral controlled substances across the cell membrane and responds to the oxidative power of potassium.
Chloride the major anion is predominantly found in the extracellular spaces as part of sodium chloride or in the stomach as hydrochloric acid.
Chloride maintains cellular integrity by its influence on acid-base and water balance as well as osmotic pressure. Chloride has a reciprocal power with other anions by decreasing or increasing when there are too many or not enough anions. Aldosterone has a direct effect of reabsorption of sodium and an indirect effect on the increased absorption of chloride.
Chlorides are lost via the GI tract through vomiting or diarrhea and thru the kidneys during times of diuresis.

Chloride also responds to the antioxidant media (cell membrane) by mobilizing, and collecting sodium/food aggregates on a selectively permeable basis. This reaction is under the influence of the adrenal medulla/epinephrine/norepinephrine thereby maintaining energy stores.
Chloride also assists in the production of HCl via the chief cells in the stomach.
In the bowel, chloride is important in preventing the passage of water out of the body. Therefore, chloride literally blocks the flow of water/gas exchange across a cell membrane. This is extremely important in the intestines and bladder.

Chloride plays a vital role during the conduction of a neurological impulse where sodium lines up on the outside of a cell membrane, and potassium on the inside of the cell membrane, during the resting stage or polarized state. In a normal nerve fiber, the permeability of the membrane to potassium is about 100 times that of sodium. The sodium-potassium pump moves three sodium ions to the exterior of the cell, for every two potassium ions that are moved to the interior of the cell, creating a net positive charge to the outside of the cell membrane for each revolution of the sodium-potassium pump. This creates a positively charged external membrane and a negatively charged internal membrane, which sets up a membrane electrical potential. As a neurological impulse is transmitted down the nerve, (which is the excitation phase of an impulse), sodium crosses the cell membrane, and enters into the cell, while potassium moves to the external portion of the membrane.

This then creates the depolarization of the cell membrane, thereby creating a negative charge on the outside, and a positive charge on the inside. The transmission of each impulse along the nerve fiber reduces infinitesimally as the concentration differences of sodium and potassium between the inside and outside of the cell membrane change slightly. In so doing allows the nerve fiber to transmit between 100, 000 to 50, 000, 000 impulses before the concentration differences are rundown.

As the neurological impulse passes, the sodium-potassium ATPase pump re-establishes the sodium-potassium ratio back to normal (repolarization). The pumping activity is dramatically increased approximately eightfold to restore the membrane back to the polarized state.
The chloride shift to the inside of the cell membrane during the final stages makes the inside of the cell, even more, negative, which further helps repolarize the cell.
Chloride generally increases and decreases with plasma or serum sodium levels.

CHLORIDE IS HIGH WHEN

General considerations:

¬ Drink plenty of water
¬ Decrease sodium levels
¬ Increase fat-soluble vitamins D, E, K, and A

Carbon Dioxide

CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide is created as a byproduct when potassium forces water into fat.
So carbon dioxide is the acid gas factor, which binds fats and selenium creating the intelligent metabolic activity between the water and fat.

80-90 percent of the carbon dioxide found in plasma is bound to protein and is represented as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) which first exists in the extracellular spaces as CO2 then as H2CO3 and finally is buffered by the plasma and erythrocytes into sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3) and is regulated by the kidneys. The other 10 to 20 percent is dissolved CO2 gas (removed by the lungs), which is bound to protein as CO3 (2), and carbonic acid (H2CO3). The total CO2 comes from dissolved CO2, H2CO3, HCO3-
and carbaminohemoglobin (CO2HHb).

This occurs in the following way, carbon dioxide in the blood reacts with water in the red blood cells to form carbonic acid. In the blood cells, there is an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase that catalyzes the water and carbon dioxide 5,000 fold, creating a rapid exchange into carbonic acid. This allows tremendous amounts of carbon dioxide reacting with the water in the red blood cells, even before the blood leaves the tissue capillaries.

So a red blood cell creates carbonic acid from water and carbon dioxide. In another small fraction of a second, the carbonic acid formed in the red blood cell now disassociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions combine with hemoglobin, as the bicarbonate ions diffuse out into the plasma while chloride ions diffuse into the red blood cells taking the place of the bicarbonate ions. This is made possible by the presence of a bicarbonate/chloride carrier protein in the red blood cell membrane, which acts as a shuttle for these two ions. Thus, the chloride content of venous red blood cells is greater than that of arterial cells. This is known as the chloride shift.
In addition, carbon dioxide can react directly with hemoglobin to form the compound carbaminohemoglobin. This carbaminohemoglobin creates the reversible reaction releasing carbon dioxide into the alveoli of the lungs.
Carbon dioxide then is the venous capillary exchange product after diffusion takes place. The active pressure intake of oxygen relies upon this diffusion. This active process realizes the ability of forced metabolism and is the ash byproduct.
Carbon dioxide is vital to pH balance and is controlled by the respiratory, renal, and posterior pituitary adrenal axis.
Therefore, any of these glands or organs or combinations thereof can affect carbon dioxide levels.
CARBON DIOXIDE IS HIGH WHEN
General considerations:
¬ Water loss- increase water intake
¬ Protein loss- increase protein intake
¬ Hypomagnesemia or hypokalemia causes increased CO2- increase potassium and magnesium

CARBON DIOXIDE IS LOW WHEN

¬ Water loss- increase water intake
¬ Hypermagnesemia or hyperkalemia causes decreased CO2- decrease potassium and magnesium support

Calcium

CALCIUM
Calcium is the largest most nonpolar, alkaline and most abundant of all minerals with 99% of all calcium found in the bones and teeth.
Calcium exists in the ionized state 55 percent of the time and 45 percent of the time in the non-diffusible state, bound to either albumin, prealbumin or thyroglobulin. Therefore, if there is a decrease in serum albumin then there will be a decrease in serum calcium.
Calcium has many functions:
¬ Provides the mobilizing factor in trauma, infections and stress for tissue repair, along with vitamins A, C, manganese, phosphorus, and fatty acids.
¬ Causes vasoconstriction, while potassium, sodium, magnesium, hydrogen ions, and carbon dioxide cause vasodilatation.
¬ Is necessary for bone formation along with phosphorus, collagen, hydroxyapatite (gives bone its hardness) and bone salts of magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonate, uranium, plutonium, and strontium.
¬ Calcium is used to create action potentials across smooth and striated muscles leading to contraction.
¬ Calcium is used as an intracellular communicator via calcium ion gated channels.
¬ Calcium collects and gather up lipoproteins, and move them across the intestinal membrane. Attaches to oils, fats, fatty acids and waxes. Calcium is absorbed in the upper portion of the small intestines (duodeneum), and the amount absorbed depends on the "acidity" of the intestinal content, via phosphorylation and protein content. When the ratio of calcium to magnesium (which is found in the intestinal membrane as well as cell membranes) is greater than 2-1, fat is drawn through the intestinal and cell membranes. Calcium also requires vitamin D. and HCl for optimal metabolism.

The glands involved with calcium are:
1. The stomach via the release of HCL, which affects the preparation and absorption of calcium.
2. The parathyroids- via parathormone control of calcium ion concentration by controlling intestinal absorption, excretion via the kidneys and the release of calcium from the bones.
3. The liver/gallbladder- via bile emulsification of lipoproteins, preparing them for intestinal absorption.
4. The spleen- which stores and ages fats or lipoproteins.
5. The parotids- due to their ability to program foodstuffs.
6. The thyroid glands-via "calcitonin", promoting deposition of calcium in the bones, while decreasing calcium concentration in the extra-cellular fluids and the blood.
7. The anterior pituitary via its control of magnesium regulating calcium uptake, which regulates protein transport thru the cell membranes.
8. The pancreas- via its ability to oxidize fatty acids
Therefore, any of the above glands or organs or combinations thereof has a great impact on calcium levels.
CALCIUM IS HIGH WHEN
General considerations
¬ Your patient should drink plenty of water
¬ Make sure they are not hypervitaminosis on Vitamins A or D
¬ Very high protein diets may increase calcium levels
¬ Magnesium and phosphates may also increase calcium levels
¬ Using sea salt can help to reduce calcium levels.
CALCIUM IS LOW WHEN
General considerations:
¬ Increase Vitamin A and D intake
¬ Increase albumin and protein intake
¬ Increase magnesium intake
¬ Increase phosphorus

Albumin

ALBUMIN

In pathological levels albumin is used to evaluate:
1. Liver and renal disease
2. Blood osmotic pressure
3. Chronic disease states, which most patients have
4. Dehydration
5. Albumin decreases in acute inflammatory infectious processes

From a physiological standpoint, albumin is produced in the liver and is a primary byproduct of sterols and waxes. Its function is used to build and repair tissue. Albumin is responsible for 80 percent of the colloidal osmotic pressure between body tissues and blood cells. 75% of this control occurs inside the cells since most of the protein is intracellular.
When you have a decrease in albumin, the osmotic pressure becomes disturbed resulting in fluid transfer and edema. Since albumin influences water movement, it will also influence nutrient and mineral movement.

Albumin creates the permeability of the membrane to the osmolarity of the membrane. Therefore, substances can pass from a lesser concentration to a greater concentration. The flow is from the arterial capillaries to extracellular fluid, then from the extracellular fluid to the intracellular fluid, then from the intracellular fluid to the mitochondria. Then back via the same pathway in reverse via osmotic absorption into the veins.

Albumin is also a part of a complex buffer system, which accounts for 75% of things that need to be buffered to maintain acid-alkaline balance in the body. The most powerful buffer system out of the four including, the bicarbonate system (HCO3-), the phosphate buffer system, and the liver (nitrogen/urea), the proteins of the cells and plasma, rein supreme. The protein buffer system works by controlling blood Hydrogen (H+) ion homeostasis. Both intracellular and extracellular proteins have negative charges and can serve as buffers for alterations in hydrogen ion concentration. However, because most proteins are inside cells, this primarily is an intracellular buffer system.

Hemoglobin (Hb) a globular protein is an excellent intracellular buffer because of it's ability to bind with Hydrogen ions forming a weak acid and carbon dioxide (CO2) bond. After oxygen is released in the peripheral tissues, hemoglobin binds with CO2 and H+ ions. As the blood reaches the lungs these actions reverse themselves. Hemoglobin binds with oxygen, releasing the CO2 and H+ ions. The H+ ions then combine with bicarbonate (HCO3) ions to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). The H2CO3 breaks down to form water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2), which are excreted via expiration through the lungs.
Increases in albumin cause arteries to sclerose and a decrease in albumin causes veins to sclerose.
Albumin is also a transporter of minerals and accounts for 70% of the bound calcium.
Magnesium also binds to albumin and since it has a lower specificity for the receptors it creates more free magnesium in the plasma.
Calcium, magnesium, and phosphates continuously enter the plasma via the kidneys, the intestinal brush borders and the ruffled border of the bone.
Albumin is also responsible for transporting copper, zinc, and nickel.
By controlling the transport of these minerals, albumin is the carrier of choice.

The following glands are associated with albumin:
1. The parotids
2. The head of the pancreas
3. The endo-reticular portion of the liver
4. Kidneys
Therefore, the function or malfunction of anyone of those glands/organs or combinations thereof can lead to imbalances in albumin levels.